Rethinking Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Rethinking Leadership - Essay Example A leader is the one who motivates and influences his/her subordinates to attain the pre-defined goals (Hernandez et al. 1166). With this definition in mind, one can recognize a number of effective leaders; Alexander the Great, Nelson Mandela, Adolf Hitler, Asoka and Mahatma Gandhi etc. However, at the organizational level, Steve Jobs is undoubtedly the most legendary leader of the 21st century who transformed the world of information technology. Steven Paul  "Steve"  Jobs  (February 24, 1955  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ October 5, 2011) was an American entrepreneur, innovator, leader and inventor, best known as the co-founder, chairman, and CEO of  Apple Inc.  Through Apple, he was widely recognized as a charismatic pioneer of the  personal computer revolution and for his influential career in the computer and  consumer electronics  fields, transforming one industry after another, from computers and smart phones to music and movies. Jobs also co-founded and served as chief executive of  Pixar Animation Studios. He became a member of the board of directors of The Walt Disney Company  in 2006, when Disney acquired Pixar. Steve Jobs was the one, who led to the creation of the  Apple Lisa  and, one year later, the Macintosh. He also played a role in introducing the  LaserWriter, one of the first widely available laser printers, to the market. Steven Paul Jobs was born on 24 February 1955 in San Francisco, California, to an un-married couple who gave him up for adoption. He was taken in by a working class couple, Paul and Clara Jobs, and grew up with them in Mountain View, California. He attended Homestead High School in Cupertino California and went to Reed College in Portland Oregon in 1972 but dropped out after only one semester, staying on to "drop in" on courses that interested him (Hertzfeld 53). He took a job with video game manufacturer Atari to raise enough money for a trip to India and returned from there a

Human Resources and Organizational Effectiveness case 5 Essay

Human Resources and Organizational Effectiveness case 5 - Essay Example The Chinese markets have also faces a surge as there has been a huge drop in the social and cultural barriers. This has been a major cause for the businesses to be able to set up the businesses and work more earnestly. Also the SMEs of China have been known for supplying parts and services to the world’s top companies. This has formed a main characteristic of the Chinese SMEs. The fact that the parts are supplied from Chinese SMEs across the world simply means that the demand for the SME depends to a very great extent on the demand of the giants where the company provide for the goods and services. It is quite difficult to ignore the significance of the SMEs in the Chinese economy. It has also been noted that the Chinese foreign exchange markets and the foreign experts have estimated that the country has been contributed as much as 60% of the total industrial output. Also it provides as much as 75% of the workforce of the country. SMEs are responsible for creating most new urb an jobs, and they are the main destination for workers laid-off from state-owned enterprises (SOEs) that re-enter the workforce. This fact of the companies providing a high level of jobs to the workforce in the country has been recognised by the government however it has also lead to a number of social unrest within the country. Chinese officials have said that SMEs would be more important for preserving social stability than the nascent social security system once increased foreign competition as a result of Chinas WTO entry forces more layoffs from uncompetitive state-owned firms. It has also been noted by the local experts that the employees aged over 40 and 50s are being removed from the jobs, specially those with a lack of skills to be able to compete in the private ventures. The next essential step is to consider the plausible strategy for Chinese SME in the manufacturing industry. There are two main strategies that need to be

Analysis of Taylorism Theories and Human Relations Theory

Analysis of Taylorism Theories and Human Relations Theory Question: Work itself is organised according to Taylorian principles, while personnel departments and academics have busied themselves with the selection, training, manipulation, pacification and adjustment of manpower to suit the work processes so organised. Taylorism dominates the world of production; the practitioners of human relations and industrial psychology are the maintenance crew for the human machinery. (Braverman, 1974: 87) This study tries to reveal the statement whether Taylorism theories tries to dictate the production world and the positions of Human Relations theory are just combined into the business operations, in order to just assist the worker output in a Taylorism manner. According to the text of (Taylor, 1914: 1-2; Holloway, 1991: 71-72), it shows that the two theories main objective focus on the method of increasing organisational output and it also extensively determine the production processes which is the objective area that will be focus in this study. Braverman makes a critical evaluation on the production processes of a capitalist environment. He stated that in a capitalist surrounding, the management tries to deteriorate the skilfulness of workers because the capitalist control and subject them to do repetitive routines of work. As this is being stated in the text of (Milloy, 2011: 92-95). The observations of Braverman have strong a linkage to those of Karl Marx, who through his theory of alienation, reached similar conclusions (Yuill, 2011: 104-107), as will be discussed extensively in the last section of this study. Reasons of confessing about the statement Based, on Milloy (2011: 92-95) notes, Bravermans stated that the statement of Taylorism dominates the production world was a conclusion of an examination which shows advanced position by Taylor, according to the availability of a highly popular capitalist management practices visible in most companies during the 70 century. Just like in the current business environment, firms were depending on system that link certain persons who undertook specific activity and were answerable to individuals of a higher level, in that order, until higher management level (Milloy, 2011: 94-97). To Braverman, these structure shows an evidence of Taylorism in the business operation. Moreover, various aim could be attempted to complement the workers society status value in the workplace, as the Human Relations theory supports, the main driver of business operation, according to Braverman and Taylor principles and also the statement. Taylor Principle Taylor principles theories main focus are on the scientific approaches towards the management of workers (Bruce Nyland, 2011: 391-393). During, the late 19th-century most factory manager, were eager in increasing the output level of labours (Weisbord, 2011: 169-171). The theorist recognised that, in order to enlarge the output level, burden of workers had to be broken into smaller units and authorise the task to the particular individuals, which this is known as the process called specialisation (Weisbord, 2011: 169-171). As Milloy (2011: 93-96) suggests, Taylor ground position is on the workers motive to perform these duties on a daily routine basis and to the satisfactory level of their need for money. Therefore, according to Taylorian principles, the compensation of workers should be based according to their productivity levels within the certain period of time (Weisbord, 2011: 170-173). A critical observation of Bravermans statement and the application of existing business world will certainly reveal that Taylor principles dictates the production world. Workers gain salary according to the working hours of worker in the workplace, earn bonuses and benefits depending on the productive level of workers and their performance (Kaplan Atkinson, 2015: 565-569). As Kaplan Atkinson (2015: 556-561) examine, modern management mainly involves the combination of small business procedure and then effectively provide duties to certain individuals and supervising the implementation procedure of these tasks, which then would linked to building up the whole company operation structures. These aspects indicates that Bravermans statement is true. Yet, as Gerhart Fang (2015: 493-496) suggested, in many organisations there is a separation between the output per units of workers and their salary levels. Furthermore, aspects such as gender pay gaps have further served to obscure the mechanism of linking productivity with rewards (Gerhart Fang, 2015: 497-501) and in most case s, the Taylor principles do not employ. Human Relations Human Relations theory holds the position which increase the worker output, firms should invest in the workers social well-being (Barkema et al., 2015: 463-466). Thus, according to the theory, workers should be allowed to have communications that are both official and causal. As opposed to the Taylorism principle, which identify capital as the operator for worker productivity, the theory emphasises that links with each other and the management are the creators of worker achievement and output (Bruce Nyland, 2011: 396-401). Also, the Human Relations theory focus on the fact when undertaking their business roles, workers are not independently rational, as forced by their motive to meet their economic needs, a position contribute by Taylor, but are depending on each other (Bruce Nyland, 2011: 396-401). Accordingly, Taylorism takes into account the fundamental strategies when relating workers objective with business goals, where it assumed that the desire can be related with the econom ic needs of the two (Weisbord, 2011: 169-171), the Human Relations principles identify that the relationship can only be create by building up social value of workers. The assessment of Bravermans statement is true in various ways. In the 21st century business world, Human Relations manner such as happy workplace, informal interactions with friends, are not noticeable as a vital practices (Barkema et al., 2015: 463-466). According to Donka, George Stefanos (2015: 69) they suggest that, these aspects that structure the main controversy of Human Relations theory are recognised as facilitators of current business procedures and operations, which as observed by Braverman, are based on Taylorism principles. Nevertheless, the pursuit of innovativeness, companys such as Google marked themselves by having fun workplace , highly flexible working hours and variety employee benefits , are tearing apart ranks with these approaches and have reconstruct their structures to principally focus on t he workers social well-being (Payton, 2015: 57-63), according with the Human Relation theory. Respectively, Taylor scientific management dominate the current business world, as time pass by businesses tries to become competitive, Human Relations principles are likely to be more significant, like in the case of Google. Karl Marx Karl Marx investigated the production procedure in his theory of alienation. Marx noted that capitalist management tends to deteriorate the workers skilfulness and the ability (Calhoun, 2012: 87-88) the three main reasons. First, Karl Marx claimed that during the workers delivered the products that had a high value, they were not appropriately compensated for their efforts, which could lead them to the feelings of uncontent (Calhoun, 2012: 87-88) and an unappreciation of their respective expertise (Shantz, Alfes Truss, 2014: 2531-2534). Second, the theorist also indicate the fact that capitalist management practice are considerable authority and control over workers, which limited their talents and abilities (Shantz, Alfes Truss, 2014: 2531-2534). Third, according to the research of Shantz, Alfes Truss (2014: 2531-2534) and Calhoun (2012: 87-88), Marx noted that capitalist management has a characteristic of continual and strict routines that transformed workers into tools of the p roduction process, rather a force that had the potential of having a positive impact on business activity . The examination of these positions and the comparison of the statement of Braverman will uncover that the both Marx and Braverman theory had similar observations. Taylorism supports a capitalist style of management, where workers are expected to be productive to their highest levels based on their pay, and the extensive breaking down of production processes and creation of routine-based roles (Bruce Nyland, 2011: 391-395). Therefore, as captured in Bravermans statement, Karl Marx, through the alienation theory, it seems that it have reached the position that capitalist management dominates the firm, which, essentially, is Taylorism. Yet, it can be argued that Karl Marx agreed with the Taylor principle of assuming that workers are motivated by the pay of salary. However, the inspiration behind Karl Marxs position on appropriate worker salary was the workers well-being, which a dvocates the Human Relations theory. Conclusion In conclusion, Bravermans quote that Taylor theory influence the production world and that the positions support by Human Relations are only employed to aid the existence of a highly organised business structure that are noticeable by strong Taylorian principles is true. Nowadays, businesses are characterised by the compensation systems that are mainly on the workers working duration and a strong important on the output within certain amount of periods, which is related with Taylor. Next, the well-being of workers should be consider rather than the productivity. This is because the well-being is perceived as a factor that improve workers performance within a highly organised system of a firm. On the contrary, the development of an innovative culture, companies such as Google have modernised their corporate structure on Human Relations principles, which this could indicate the future, the Human Relations principle could be replace by the business environment of Taylor. References Barkema, H. G., Chen, X. P., George, G., Luo, Y., Tsui, A. S. (2015). West meets East: New concepts and theories. Academy of Management Journal, 58(2), 460-479. Bruce, K., Nyland, C. (2011). Elton Mayo and the deification of human relations. Organization Studies, 32(3), 383-405. Calhoun, C. (2012). Classical sociological theory. New Jersey: John Wiley Sons. Donka, N., George, A., Stefanos, K. (2015). Sociology of Labour and Human Resource Management: An Interdisciplinary Approach. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 4(3 S1), 69. Gerhart, B., Fang, M. (2015). Pay, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation, performance, and creativity in the workplace: Revisiting long-held beliefs. Annu. Rev. Organ. Psychol. Organ. Behav., 2(1), 489-521. Hollway, W. (1991). Work psychology and organizational behaviour. London: Sage Publications Kaplan, R. S., Atkinson, A. A. (2015). Advanced management accounting. New Delhi: PHI Learning. Milloy, J. (2011). Bravermans New World? Assessing the Labour Process In Recent Scholarship. Left History, 15(2), 91-101. Payton, F. C. (2015). Workplace Design: The Millennials Are Not Coming-Theyre Here. Design Management Review, 26(1), 54-63. Shantz, A., Alfes, K., Truss, C. (2014). Alienation from work: Marxist ideologies and twenty-first-century practice. The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 25(18), 2529-2550. Taylor, F. W. (1914). The principles of scientific management. New York: Harper. Weisbord, M. (2011). Taylor, McGregor and me. Journal of Management History, 17(2), 165-177. Yuill, C. (2011). Forgetting and remembering alienation theory. History of the Human Sciences, 24(2), 103-119. 1438 words

Great White Sharks :: essays research papers

The Great White shark, also known as the white death, is considered the most dangerous shark in the waters. The Great White has a conical instead of a flattened snout, black eyes, and large, serrated, arrowhead-shaped teeth. The upper and lower lobes of the tail are almost equal in size, and the body is blue or brown-gray, not white, except on its belly. The Great White is found in temperate waters throughout the worlds oceans, and it is important, though not common, predator in California’s coastal habitat.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The waters off central California offer a rich bounty of food for white sharks, and every summer and fall, they actively feed in nearshore areas. The Farallan Islands, a national wildlife refuge about twenty-seven miles off San Francisco, is a common feeding ground for the great white. The coastal waters along central California, especially around the Ano Nuevo State Reserve and along the Marin Headlands, are another common area for white sharks. In the summer the sharks move to the coasts of Oregon and occasionally the Gulf of Alaska, and in the fall, they turn south and move along the offshore islands. They are also found in great numbers in the Australian waters.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The great white is a very agile killer that hunts mostly anything in the ocean. They are carnivorous and usually prey on sick or injured prey. Just one drop of blood can make the shark go into a feeding frenzy. It is not made to swim fast and its usual speed is fifteen miles per hour. It migrates south to warmer waters to give birth to six to nine pups. The only way it can defend itself is by using its mouth and its razor-sharp teeth.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  One of the most largest specimens caught was off of Mantauk, Long Island, and New York, in 1964; it was seventeen and a half feet long and weighed an estimated 4500 pounds. Between 1916 and 1969, there were thirty-two attacks on swimmers, resulting in thirteen deaths attributed to great white sharks. On three occasions white sharks were reported to have attacked boats, sinking one of them, a dory, off Cape Breton, Nova

Stefan’s Diaries: The Craving Chapter 15

The night before the wedding, I stood staring out the window of my bedroom. A beautiful quarter-moon shown through the ornately paned glass. It felt like the entire nighttime world was teasing me, calling out: Come play. Come hunt. Come disappear into the darkness. My skin prickled whenever a hint of the night air breezed through, and my nostrils flared at the thousand and one scents it carried. I am not meant to stay captive inside at night†¦. I had thought I was miserable in the park hunting squirrels, but here I was trapped by my word, by my guilt, by these stupid walls, by a family of humans under a spell, by my brother. Mrs. Sutherland came in earlier that evening. She didn't say much, just patted my hand and pinched my cheek, telling me not to worry, the wedding would soon be over and then we all – we all – could get back to the normal happy business of being a family. Little did she know that after Damon was through with them, the Sutherlands would never be able to be normal or happy again. A knock at the door interrupted my thoughts. I turned and tightened the nice silk smoking jacket Winfield had loaned me, wondering if Mrs. Sutherland had left something behind. But then the door cracked open and a pink, mischievous face poked through. â€Å"Bridget,† I half-groaned. I looked around me desperately, as if some sort of exit would suddenly appear that I could escape through. She giggled and suddenly shoved her way in, slamming the door behind her, leaning against it like she had just shut out an invading army. â€Å"Stefan,† Bridget said in what she probably thought was a sexy, dulcet tone. She was dressed in a chiffon robe with giant chenille cabbage roses. Underneath, instead of a simple nightgown, she wore a complicated corseted dress made of bright pink silk with a rose-red sash that left her shoulders and neck bare. â€Å"Bridget,† I said warningly, backing up. My head hit one of the beams of the four-poster bed. â€Å"I thought maybe we could start the honeymoon early,† she whispered, pushing herself into my arms. â€Å"Uh – † I stammered. Her cheeks were red and her eyes were heavy-lidded. Despite Damon's compulsions, she was also under the sway of her own emotions, stirred to amorous feelings for the man she was about to marry. She pushed me – with remarkably strong arms – down on to the bed and fell upon me, crushing me under wave after wave of silk. Her breasts heaved over the corset, and I could feel her warm skin through my robe. I had a perfect view of her bare white neck. Her heart pumped quickly, giving her skin a hot, rosy glow and filling my senses with her blood. I could smell it all over her, salty and warm and human. A shiver went through my body as her chest pressed against mine, and I could feel the pain begin along my jaw. Such a sweet pain – and it had been such a long time since I had had human blood†¦. It couldn't hurt, part of me said. She wouldn't mind me biting her, even without compulsion. It didn't have to be painful, and she might even enjoy it. Before I knew what I was doing I had pressed my lips to her shoulder, just to feel the skin, to take a little lick†¦ She felt me moving beneath her and misinterpreted it, kissing me harder and getting into a more comfortable position, entwining her legs in mine. â€Å"No!† I managed to get control of myself and shoved her off me. I didn't mean to do it so forcefully, but even in my weakened state I was still several times stronger than a human. She fell to the end of the bed, against one of the posts, looking shocked. And then she began to cry. â€Å"You†¦ don't want me†¦Ã¢â‚¬  she wailed, fat droplets of tears rolling down her cheeks. â€Å"Bridget, no, I†¦Ã¢â‚¬  My fangs retracted and I was aching with the pain and my need for blood. â€Å"It's just†¦ we're getting married tomorrow, Bridget. Just one more day. If we wait until it's†¦ uh†¦ proper, it will be even more special. Just think, we'll have completed a†¦ beautiful day†¦ with you in your beautiful, uh†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Cream brocade with Flemish lace on the sleeves and bodice and an ivory satin sash with a veil of matching ivory silk flowers,† she sniffled. â€Å"Right.† I touched her elbow delicately and tilted her chin up so she had to look at me. She wiped the tears off her face with a piece of her robe. â€Å"Let my first night with you be with that image of you in my mind, my blushing bride.† She nodded, sniffing again, giving me a faint smile. â€Å"All right.† Then she giggled again, back to her old self, and flounced off the bed and to the door. â€Å"Good night†¦ lover,† she cooed before exiting. As soon as she was gone I fell back on the bed, muffling a groan in my pillow. It did nothing to abate my frustration. I stood, pacing from the window to the door, wanting to leave, to escape, to hunt, to do something. But I had no choice, no option. I was trapped in this room, in this situation, in the terrible in-betweenness of being neither a human nor a monster. I ripped the pillow straight in two, feathers exploding around the room like a white powder keg. Damn you, Damon, I thought violently, for putting me in this position. And damn you, too, Katherine, for beginning all this.

Innovation at 3M Corporation Essay

3M was and still is a worldwide leader in innovation. After a rough start in 1902, over decades, 3M enjoyed national and global growth as well as a reputation for remaining a hothouse of innovation. In the 1990’s, 3M was trying to move away from the incrementalism and it sought to change the mix of new products to truly create something new to the world, instead of line extensions, which typically had provided two out of three new-product sales dollars. By 1996, the 3M Medical-Surgical Markets Division, a world leader in surgical drapes market, had gone almost a decade with only one successful product. At this point, Senior Product Specialist Rita Shor has been charged with the mandate of developing a breakthrough product within existing business strategy. She was selected not only because her seniority but also because she was thought of as being creative and consensus builder. Rita and the Medical-Surgical Market Division experiences with the traditional market research were disappointing. Traditional tools presented an abundance of data but contained little useful information for conceptualizing a breakthrough product as the current strategy of the company was desperate to find. In an in house lecture, Rita had heard about a new methodology for product development called â€Å"Lead User Research.† In an in house lecture, Rita had heard about a new methodology for product development called â€Å"Lead  User Research.† The premise of this novel methodology was that certain consumers experienced needs ahead of other consumers and some of the former would seek to innovate on their own. Shor decided to try since this might provide the key to the breakthrough product. The Medical-Surgical Division focused largely on reducing infections from skin through surgical drapes and surgical prepping. The team decided to  center their interest in a new product that should reduce infections, conform to the body, prove more effective than current products and be easy to apply and remove. Shor and her consultants follow the â€Å"Lead User Research† methodology stage by stage. The first two stages run as planned. However, the diversity in lead users and fields of expertise was adding complexity to the third and fourth phase. Along the way, after a change of the division manager, Shor experienced a big barrier of skepticism from her superiors. They had reduction on the team and clear opposition. The third stage took six months instead of six weeks. Shor and her team had to sell the program starting from scratch, reminding the new managers the expected benefits and the old problems. Finally, after one year and with the help of a dozen of lead users gather from backgrounds as diverse as cosmetics to surgery, the team ended up with three innovative product recommendations. Two of them represented a straightforward linear extension of 3M product lines. One more, the team though, might open the door to new business opportunities. However, the team had a fourth recommendation but it divided the team. The fourth idea would change the business unit strategy, in fact could mean to associate and combine technology from more than one core area of the company. Shor should decide if take the four recommendations to the senior management and revolutionize the company or just play safe and keep doing business as always. Case analysis There is no doubt of the excellence of 3M’s products. It is also known per decades that the company is a leader in innovation. However, this case represents the need for change in a moment where innovation was just predictable and the â€Å"new products† were the result of the same old ideas. It is understandable, up to a certain point, the level of comfort in employees and management had within the company. When the company has a steady income and year after year and the results show growth, small but growth, it is hard to sell a change in the organization. Rita Shor’s dilemma about presenting or not the fourth recommendation was not just about numbers. It was about business strategy, changes in the organization and cultural change management. After all, depending on how that kind of changes are implemented, the numbers could go either direction, faster and bigger by itself. Eventually, 3M should realize that the times where the innovation called for â€Å"it’s better to seek forgiveness than ask for permission† were behind. That there was no more â€Å"get-out-of-the-way† attitude. To put it in perspective, the employees’ comfort zone made the company transform itself in a short-term thinking, incapable of being radical anymore. In addition to the cultural aspect of the organization, another reason for the actual situation was the product developing process and the product teams that perform it. Those teams were composed primarily of technical individuals with zero room for an empirical behavior, making the company a secluded environment. The proportions of logic and predictability in contrast with creativity and â€Å"free† innovation were overwhelming. In summary, Rita Shor’s decision was not an easy one. She never imagined how far her assignment was going to go. The truth was that it went beyond the point of just finding a breakthrough product. The results of applying the â€Å"Lead User Research† methodolog y, opened bigger doors to radical change inside the company. That is what the case is all about. Alternatives Rita Shor had two clear alternatives. On the one hand, she could deliver to senior management only the three products they clearly defined. On the contrary, she could face the opposition of some of her own team members and introduce to 3M the â€Å"Lead User Research† methodology. Explaining the findings and telling the company that the legendary innovation process needed a refresh. The first option would help the team to present a safe and conservative idea, aligned with the 3M traditional methods. In fact, two of the three products were a linear progression of other products, which would please the â€Å"old† school of the management. Likewise, the third product accomplished the goal of the new company strategy. It was the  breakthrough product that the Senior Management charged Rita to find. This option was the best in terms of having everybody happy within the team and everybody in th e organization. The second option was a bigger risk. It was a personal risk for Rita and her results to the company. It was also a business risk for the Health Care Unit and the Medical -Surgical Division. The recommendation of evolution or revolution was a big challenge for all the levels of the organization. It would start with the Health Care Unit’s business strategy statement but it would not stop there. The new recommendation would imply to collaborate with other units. It would means probably to create and destroy business units along the company. Not to mention that the recommendation would touch the core of the innovation principles in 3M. However, all those risks could be the answer that 3M was eager to find. The 30% goal of sales from products that did not exist four years earlier was not an easy target. The answer could be the change in the innovation process as a whole and not just one product at a time. Recommendations Definitely, the recommendation is to deliver the fourth idea to the Senior Management team. However, in order to assure the success of the new â€Å"Lead Users Research† methodology, it must be clear that 3M needs to commit all levels of the organization to the changes that â€Å"reinventing† themselves will bring. Change Management is a painful process. Even though it could involve complex  activities, changes in organizational structure, downsizing and cultural mentality change, all will benefit the company, in the long run. The new initiative will bring back the bright ideas 3M was known for and it will restore the respect that other businesses in the industry always have had for them. It is important though, be aware of the long process, the challenges that implement new methodologies and new ways of thinking implies. In 1995, John Kotter published research that revealed only 30 percent of change programs are successful1. There are not too many changes since then. In fact, fig.1 shows how 9% completely failed, 49% failed and just 21% had a complete and successful implementation of changes in the organizations 2.

Down Syndrome Characteristics

Down Syndrome Characteristics Down Syndrome is named after John Langdon Down, an English Physician who first described the set of characteristics that have long been associated with the genetic abnormality. The chromosomal aberration is an additional full or partial copy of the 21st chromosome which causes a change in the developmental arch of the organism (child) and therefore the developmental differences.   There is no definite cause for the presence of Down Syndrome than the random presence of this mutation.   There is a higher incidence of Down Syndrome births to mothers as their age increases, but there is no familial or genetic component. Physical Traits Short stature:   Often a child can be diagnosed based on the ratio of length and width of the bones in the finger.   Adult males average a height of five foot one inch and adult females average four foot eight inches.    The stature issue is also reflected in difficulty with balance, short, broad fingers and hands and later motor.    A Flat Nasal Ridge: a flattening of the face and large tongue often contribute to sleep apnea.    Wide Spread Feet:   Students with Down Syndrome usually have an extra large space between their big and second toes.    This creates some challenges for coordination and mobility.    Neurological Traits Intellectual deficits:   Children with Down Syndrome have mild (IQ or Intelligence Quotient of 50 to 70) or moderate (IQ of 30 to 50) intellectual disabilities, although a few have severe intellectual disabilities with an IQ from 20 to 35.    Language:   Children with Down Syndrome often have stronger receptive (understanding, comprehension) language than expressive language.   In part, it is because the facial differences (flat nose ridge and a thick tongue, often attached to the bottom of the mouth and requiring a simple surgery).    Children with Down Syndrome are capable of making intelligible language, but require speech-language therapy and lots of patience in order to master articulation.    Their physical differences create articulation challenges, but children with Down Syndrome are often anxious to please and will work hard to create clear conversation. Social Traits Unlike other disabilities such as Autism Spectrum Disorders which create difficulties with social skills and attachment, children with Down Syndrome are often enthusiastic to engage other people and are very social.   This is a reason that inclusion is a valuable part of a child with Down Syndromes educational career. Students with Down Syndrome are often very affectionate, and may benefit from social training that includes helping students identify socially appropriate and inappropriate interactions. Motor and Health Challenges Weak gross motor skills and a tendency of parents to isolate their children may lead to long-term health problems, including obesity and a lack of aerobic and gross motor skills.   Students with Downs Syndrome will benefit from physical education programs that encourage aerobic activity.   As children with Down Syndrome age, they will have health challenges related to their physical difference.   They are prone to arthritis due to the skeletal stresses related to their short stature and their low muscular tone. They often do not get enough aerobic education and can often suffer from heart disease.   Co-Morbidity Often students with disabilities will have more than a single (primary) disabling condition.   When this occurs, it is referred to as Co-Morbidity.   Although some sort of co-morbidity is common in all disabilities, some disabilities are more likely to have co-morbid pairs.   With Down Syndrome, it can include schizophrenia, depression and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Being attentive to the symptoms is essential to providing the best sort of educational support.

The Taklamakan Desert in China

The Taklamakan Desert in China In the Uigur language, Taklamakan may mean you can get into it but can never get out, according to Travel Guide China. We cant verify whether or not the translation is accurate, but the label fits such a large, dry, dangerous place for humans and most animals. Large lakes, including Lop Nor and Kara Koschun, have dried up, so over the millennia, the area of the desert has increased. The Taklamakan Desert is an inhospitable approximately 1000x500 km (193,051 sq. mi.) oval. It is far from any ocean, and so hot, dry, and cold, by turns, with shifting sand dunes covering 85% of the surface, propelled by northerly winds, and sandstorms. Alternate Spellings:  Taklimakan and Teklimakan Lack of Rainfall Wang Yue and Dong Guangrun of the Desert Research Institute in Lanzhou, China, say that in the Taklamakan Desert the average annual rainfall is less than 40 mm (1.57 inches). It is about 10 mm- thats just over a third of an inch- in the center and 100 mm at the bases of the mountains, according to Terrestrial Ecoregions- Taklimakan desert. Bordering Countries While it is in China, and bordered by various mountain ranges (Kunlun, Pamir, and Tian Shan), there are other countries around it: Tibet, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, and India. Ancient Inhabitants People would have lived there comfortably 4000 years ago. Mummies were found in the region, perfectly preserved by the arid conditions, are presumed to be Indo-European-speaking Caucasians. Science, in a 2009 article, reports: In the northeastern edge of the desert, archaeologists from 2002 until 2005 excavated an extraordinary cemetery called Xiaohe, which has been radiocarbon-dated to as early as 2000 B.C.E.... A vast oval sand hill covering 25 hectares, the site is a forest of 140 standing poles marking the graves of long-lost society and environment. The poles, wood coffins, and carved wooden statues with pronounced noses come from the poplar forests of a far cooler and wetter climate. Silk Road Trade Routes One of the worlds largest deserts, the Taklamakan, is located in the northwest region of modern China, in Xinjiang Uighur Autonomous Region. There are oases located on two routes around the desert that served as important trading spots on the Silk Road. Along the north, the route went by the Tien Shan Mountains and along the south, the Kunlun Mountains of the Tibetan Plateau. Economist Andrà © Gunder Frank, who traveled along the northern route with UNESCO, says the southern route was most used in ancient times. It joined up with the northern route at Kashgar to head into India/Pakistan, Samarkand and Bactria. Sources Archaeology in China: Bridging East and West, by Andrew Lawler; Science 21 August 2009: Vol. 325 no. 5943 pp. 940-943.News and Short Contributions, by Derrold W. Holcomb; Journal of Field Archaeology.On the Silk Road: An Academic Travelogue Andre Gunder Frank Economic and Political Weekly Vol. 25, No. 46 (Nov. 17, 1990), pp. 2536-2539.Sand Sea History of the Taklimakan for the Past 30,000 Years. by Wang Yue and Dong Guangrun Geografiska Annaler. Series A, Physical Geography Vol. 76, No. 3 (1994), pp. 131-141.Ancient Inner Asian Nomads: Their Economic Basis and Its Significance in Chinese History, by Nicola Di Cosmo; The Journal of Asian Studies Vol. 53, No. 4 (Nov. 1994), pp. 1092-1126.

How to Research Loyalist Ancestors

How to Research Loyalist Ancestors Loyalists, sometimes referred to as Tories, Royalists, or Kings Men, were American colonists who remained loyal to the British Crown during the years leading up to and including the American Revolution (1775–1783). Historians estimate that as many as 500,000 people - fifteen to twenty percent of the population of the Colonies- opposed the revolution. Some of them were active in their opposition, actively speaking out against the rebels, serving with British units during the war, or supporting the King and his forces as couriers, spies, guides, suppliers, and guards. Others were more passive in their choice of position. Loyalists were present in large numbers in New York, a refuge for persecuted Loyalists from September 1776 until its evacuation in 1783. There were also large groups in New Jersey, Pennsylvania and in the southern colonies of North Carolina, South Carolina and Georgia.1 Elsewhere they were a large minority of the population but least numerous in Massachusetts Virginia. Life as a Loyalist Because of their beliefs, Loyalists in the Thirteen Colonies were often treated as traitors. Active Loyalists may have been coerced into silence, stripped of their property, or even banished from the Colonies. In areas under Patriot control, Loyalists could not sell land, vote, or work in occupations such as doctor, lawyer, or schoolteacher. The outright hostility against the Loyalists both during and following the war ultimately resulted in the flight of about 70,000 Loyalists to British territories outside the colonies. Of these, approximately 46,000 went to Canada and Nova Scotia; 17,000 (primarily Southern Loyalists and their slaves) to the Bahamas and West Indies; and 7,000 to Britain. Among the Loyalists numbered not only colonists of British heritage, but also Scots, Germans, and Dutch, plus individuals of Iroquois ancestry and former African-American slaves. Begin with a Literature Survey If you have successfully traced your ancestry back to an individual living in America during the American Revolution, and clues seem to point to him being a possible Loyalist, then a survey of existing published source materials on Loyalists is a good place to begin. Many of these can actually be researched online through free sources that publish digitized version of historical books and journals. Use search terms such as loyalists or royalists and your area (state or country of interest) to explore available resources online in Google and in each of the historical books collections listed in 5 Free Sources for Historical Books Online. Examples of what you can find online include: Siebert, Wilbur H. The Loyalists of Pennsylvania. The Ohio State University Bulletin, 24 (April 1920). Digitized copy. Archive.org. http://archive.org/stream/pennsyloyalist00siebrich#page/n3/mode/2up : 2013.Lambert, Robert Stansbury. South Carolina Loyalists in the American Revolution, second edition. Digital book. Clemson: Clemson University Digital Press, 2010. clemson.edu/cedp/cudp/pubs/lambert/lambert.pdf : 2013. When searching specifically for historical publications, try various combinations of search terms such as United Empire Loyalists or loyalists pennsylvania or south carolina royalists. Terms such as Revolutionary War or American Revolution can turn up useful books as well. Periodicals are another excellent source of information on Loyalists. To find articles on this topic in historical or genealogical journals, conduct a search in PERSI, an index to over 2.25 million genealogy and local history articles appearing in publications of thousands of local, state, national and international societies and organizations. If you have access to a university or other large library, the JSTOR database is another good source for historical journal articles. Search for Your Ancestor in Loyalist Lists During and after the Revolution, various lists of known Loyalists were created which may name your ancestor. The United Empire Association of Canada has probably the largest list of known or suspected Loyalists. Called the Directory of Loyalists, the list includes about 7,000 names compiled from a variety of sources. Those marked as proven, are proven United Empire Loyalists; the rest are either unproven names found identified in at least one resource or those who have been proven NOT to be Loyalists. Most of the lists published during the war as proclamations, in newspapers, etc. have been located and published. Look for these online, in U.S. state archives, in Canadian provincial archives, and in archives and other repositories in other areas where Loyalists settled, such as Jamaica. Sources: 1. Robert Middlekauff, The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp 549–50.

Emerging Economies (RUSSIA) Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4750 words

Emerging Economies (RUSSIA) - Research Paper Example According to the research findings the Soviet Union was considered as one of the most powerful and stable country in the world in 1980’s. The Soviet Union was getting stronger and stronger with the passage of time. The country was also stable economically. However, the policies devised and adopted by the country weakened the economic and political situation which eventually resulted in disintegration of Soviet Union. However, the analysts are of the view that the basic reason of political and economic collapse of the Soviet Union was the culture of War which caused severe impacts on the economic and political situations of the country. This increased war culture also affected the budget of the country and a greater portion of the budget was reserved only for the military. This increase in the military budget was made at the expense of the investment in the economy. By the mid of decade of 1980, half of the total output of the country was consumed by the Soviet military only. T his caused the shortages of the industrial commodities for the country and general public as a whole. Moreover, the commodities available in the market of Soviet Union were also not considered fit for use as all the commodities and goods which were in good condition were taken up by the military. Consequently, the consumers of the Soviet Union started importing the industrial goods to satisfy their desires. The economic factors that resulted in collapse of Soviet Union were also closely linked to the psychological factors affecting the people of the country. As the market was glooming day by day due to availability of few products and commodities in the market, the people were getting more and more depressed. Those who could import the goods from other countries satisfied their needs, but the other portion of the public suffered a lot. This had severe impacts on the psychological situations of the people and also on their working patterns and habits. The level of distrust in the gov ernment was so high that the workers often said that the government pretended that they were paying them for their work and they pretended that they were working for the government. The analysts are of the view that the incentives for the production were very low. In some cases, the workers were not given any incentives for the efforts they put in. This deterred the workers from working. Grigory Yavlinsky, a Russian economist, was of the view that the system of the system was not functioning properly because the workers were not working (Thayer, W. Silicon, V) At the time when the Soviet Union was facing great depression and economical instability, the Reagan administration in US decided to increase the military budget. They also proposed to implement an antiballistic missile system. This caused the Soviet Union to increase its military budget to maintain parity with United States. But at this stage, it was impossible for the Soviet Union to increase the share of its budget share fo r the military. The authorities of the Soviet Union decided to end the cold war and also the arms race which resulted in the allocation of a greater portion of budget to fulfill the military purposes only. However, this also removed the possibility of an invasion by external forces. Thus, the people of the Soviet Union also refused to accept the totalitarian system of government. As a result, the whole political system of the country was disintegrated and the Soviet Union collapsed. The post-Soviet period was a tough time for Russia. Especially, the transition period brought great challenges for the Russian government and public. The ways and methods that were adopted by the Russian administration to deal with these challenges are of significant importance. Moreover, the revolutionary changes that were brought by the Russian government in the field of education, industry and resource sectors are worth-mentioning. The economic policies adopted by the government in immediate post-Sovi et period are also of great importance. POST-SOVIET PERIOD: The Russian economy became one of the

Drug and alcohol use in teens Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Drug and alcohol use in teens - Term Paper Example A good example is alcohol. It is highly important that people who are in their teens do not use drugs or alcohol as it will have a devastating effect on their bodies. This paper will examine this effect. First of all, one should point out that drugs, due to their nature, negatively affect the brain of a person – the organ which is still a mystery for the science (Scheier vii). Indeed, the nature of the drugs distorts the normal work of brain and it can hardly be restored to its fullest. In other words, it is important to keep in mind that drugs do harm to the body that can hardly be reversed, so if a person decides to take drugs, there is a little chance that one will be able to leave the path of addiction and become a normal individual once again. What is more important is that the minor harmful effects that the body might experience because of the drugs may last for a rather considerable amount of time (Hyde and Setaro 50). This means that one can not simply try drugs for on e time: the consequences which are unpleasant will keep appearing after the use. So, a person should understand that nothing is worth that. Indeed, one should acknowledge that unlike other substances, drugs influence the organism of a person on a much deeper level which makes them extremely dangerous. The â€Å"positive† effect that they drugs can be explained by the distorted functions of some organs; so, when a person takes drugs, one is deliberately tampering one’s body.

Old english language Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Old english language - Essay Example To begin with, the role of language in one's life is one that fulfils the need to belong. (Crystal, 2005) This sense of belonging springs from one's immediate environment where there is focus on the language one speaks along with complementary elements like accent, nuances and other such features that form the general social and cultural terrain of the particular place. Language offers people first hand knowledge of a variety of symbols that one comes to associate with a place. This in turn generates a more enriching quality to one's experiences. Experiences in various spheres helps in understanding the forces within society and how these forces define and alter language. (Mercer, 1996) In knowing and learning a language, whether by birth or subsequent settlement, there is a certain amount of satisfaction that helps contribute to one's sense of identity. This also has certain mental implications as it shows the person's basic aptitudes, besides brining him or her face to face with the challenges of implementing the language. This makes a person draw from experiences of the past, learn from present experiences and contribute to future experiences, which will shape his or her overall life experiences. This also renders a certain amount of creative and communicative competency to a person and his or her sense of confidence with which he or she carries out interactions with people. This creates a working relationship between centrifugal and centripetal forces in society towards the definition and alteration of language. (Crystal, 2005) Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces Formal and Informal Means of Learning: Centripetal Forces Within every society there are formal and informal means of learning that support the definition and alteration of language. Let us stop for a moment and consider the word "formal". This word has been used above in the context of generating the difference between theory and practice as it may be seen from a variety of perspectives. To begin with, a person's formal education begins at school and goes on into college and higher institutions thereon. Yet, there is a strong play of "informal education" in a person's life. (Byram, 1994; Pp 15 - 31) Informal education begins in a person's life from the time he or she takes birth. Many studies and scientists believe that informal education or orientation towards one's basic belief and value system begins once a child is conceived in a mother's womb. According to numerous studies, a foetus responds to every little sound while in the mother's womb. This is but a small example of informal training. Informal education by no means stops once a child enters an educational institution. Formal education through an educational institution simply sharpens the brains and prepares it to recognise those symbols that will bring a person towards actual worthwhile learning through external experiences. No theory is complete without practice. In fact, any theory that has been propounded without practice is a failure towards imbibing competency of any kind within any individual. According to Lea, "In efforts to help inform educational theory they (philosophers) have dealt extensively with concepts like knowledge, teaching, learning, thinking, understanding, belief, justification, theory, the discipline, rationality and the likes." (Lea, 2001; Pp 16 - 37) The power of

The British Welfare State Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

The British Welfare State - Essay Example This essay deals with the British Welfare State, the influences and personalities that brought it about its origins, development, problems and benefits. It looks at such things as legislation and the reports on which such laws are based. In particular it considers the inequalities the welfare state sought to redress, but also point out inequalities in more recent years, and the possible reasons behind these. This essay will deal with the British Welfare System and the inequalities it sought to remedy in such areas as education, employment opportunities, justice and health. The United Kingdom is a state in which centralised government , and the legislation it produces, directs its welfare system to a great extent. However, although one state, it is not one country. This means, especially since the setting up of separate parliaments that legislation and therefore provision and available services in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as well as in England will differ to some extent. A lso there is no one ‘Welfare State Ministry’. The Cabinet office for instance is responsible for public service reform, the Treasury for finances, and there are of course numerous othe rinvovled departemnts and agencies. This means that in some cases inequalities are built into the governmantal system. However reasons for inequalities are many and varied , and not just linked to legislation. This essay will consider the failures as well as the positive attributes of such a system , and why these occurred and continue to do so. It will look briefly at the history and origins of the present system and its gradual development. It will consider problems that have arisen and why these occurred. One of the initial problems is perhaps the definition of inequality within society. Is it to do with equality of opportunity or equality of outcome? The former for instance was dealt with by such things as the provision of free secondary education for all. But all children were not as capable intellectually of benefiting from a grammer school education and so schools were developed offering education of a more practical nature. Some of those who passed the grammer school entrance examinations could not proceed for economic reasons or because of family pressures and so ended up in secondary modern or technical schools, for which presumably they were not best suited. All this means that, in the case of education at least, although technically there was an equality of opportunity, in fact there was not, and there certainly could never be equalities of outcomes. In more recent times parents have supposedly been given more choice as to which schools their children will go to, but the practice falls far short of such an idealistic situation. With regards to health perhaps the situation would be more equal? After all the health service was set up as free at the point of need. But now in the 21st century the media are full of the ‘post code lottery’ or repo rts about some Health Care Trusts refusing to fund certain treatments, in some cases potentiality life saving, which are available in other areas, or, of course, to those who are willing and able to pay. Inequality rules therefore in health care as in other areas of society. There has always been economic inequality in human societies since the very first caveman noticed that his neighbour had a better axe than he has. The exact nature of inequalities in society, their causes and effects as well as their importance have long been a matter for debate, but is clear that the varying abilities of people to create wealth for whatever reasons , are part of the complex pattern of equalities in soci

International Human Resource Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

International Human Resource Management - Essay Example They could perhaps implement a program that keeps the expatriates informed about the new changes that have been implemented in their organisation back home. They could also organize training sessions on the return of their employees, to facilitate easy adaptation and help them get over the shock phase. ('Repatriation', website: http://www.intercultural-training.co.uk/repatriation.asp) I believe that while Sam has been given prior training and other aids, to adapt to the existent conditions in Japan, his family will receive a culture shock. This is due to the fact the family has not received any prior orientation, apart from a self-motivated attempt at learning the local language. The company must have recognized the services of employees and provide guidance and help, in aiding them and their families settle down amidst changing scenarios. First comes the phase of adaptation, when the employee's family finds the environment new and different from the routine he has been subject to. They need to get used to the whole new setup, which could probably include a new language, culture or practices in general. This could create disillusionment and slight depression.

How Do We Forgive Our Fathers (Poem) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

How Do We Forgive Our Fathers (Poem) - Essay Example The speaker of the poem is most probably a son, a son who faces the double dilemmas of knowing himself and knowing his father, without losing touch with his own identity. The poem suggests that a father’s masculinity defines his personality, which in turn, shapes his attitudes and behaviors as a husband and a father to his family; in other words, masculinity develops and delimits his destiny, a destiny that is intertwined with his children’s identities. In the first stanza, the poem looks at his father through the haze of the past and the future. The first line states: â€Å"How do we forgive our Fathers?† (Lourie 1). These words ask all children about forgiving their fathers. â€Å"Fathers† is capitalized, which makes it more personal because a son would say â€Å"Father† not â€Å"father.† It is in plural form too, which connotes the universality of having fathers as a shared experience. The first line also evokes the image of a father who must be forgiven. The speaker no longer asks if people need to forgive their fathers, but focuses on the process, the â€Å"how.† Apparently, the speaker does not know the process of forgiving someone as important in his life as a father. The poet continues the thought to the second line, which states: â€Å"Maybe in a dream† (Lourie 2). ... The future may be bleak when children have a hard time forgiving their fathers. The question of forgiveness is perceived with both hesitation and opportunity. The next few lines of the first stanza introduce the greatest faults of fathers in general. The third line continues to the idea of fathers’ deficiencies. It states: â€Å"Do we forgive our Fathers for leaving us too often or forever† (Lourie 3). Instead of answering the question â€Å"how,† the poet refers to the reasons why people have to forgive their fathers. The shift of the content from the â€Å"how† to the â€Å"why† provides a clearer explanation of the context of forgiveness. What have fathers done to be forgiven? The poet answers that fathers sometimes leave their families too much or forever, wherein â€Å"too often† means they always have to go to work, and for their spare time, they drink or spend it with their colleagues and friends. This aspect of fatherhood highlights c lass, race, and gender issues. The working class, especially low-income minority groups, spends their lifetime working to make ends meet. As fathers, the patriarchal society expects them to be the breadwinners, which is a gender issue. As men of the house, they must make money, or else, society questions their masculinity. To leave â€Å"forever,† on the contrary, means that the father has abandoned his family. He has sired a child and left him/her to his/her mother. This kind of fatherhood is criticized, but not as blatantly as mothers who abandon their children. Somehow, a masculine world condones abandoning fathers as an acceptable norm. These reasons for forgiving fathers are important because they undermine the essence of a father. A father who is gone or almost always gone can hardly be a father in

International Human Resource Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

International Human Resource Management - Essay Example They could perhaps implement a program that keeps the expatriates informed about the new changes that have been implemented in their organisation back home. They could also organize training sessions on the return of their employees, to facilitate easy adaptation and help them get over the shock phase. ('Repatriation', website: http://www.intercultural-training.co.uk/repatriation.asp) I believe that while Sam has been given prior training and other aids, to adapt to the existent conditions in Japan, his family will receive a culture shock. This is due to the fact the family has not received any prior orientation, apart from a self-motivated attempt at learning the local language. The company must have recognized the services of employees and provide guidance and help, in aiding them and their families settle down amidst changing scenarios. First comes the phase of adaptation, when the employee's family finds the environment new and different from the routine he has been subject to. They need to get used to the whole new setup, which could probably include a new language, culture or practices in general. This could create disillusionment and slight depression.

Adolf Hitler- Long Live Germany Essay Example for Free

Adolf Hitler- Long Live Germany Essay The ruler, commander, leader, â€Å"God like† image to all of German in between his rising years, 1928-1935, had great power over all living being in Germany at the time. German flags would be raised wherever you may travel in German; Nazi’s over-ruled the people in many streets Here is a poster of Adolf Hitler, during 1935, showing us how mighty and powerful he is. Showing us how he can change German individuals’ lives into a better life, and how he and his party, can make a change into German. Es lebe Deutfchland! † A phrase that has been used in front of the poster, meaning â€Å"Long live Germany! † We all know that Hitler’s rise to power between 1928-1933 made him a strong and well-known man. Everyone in Germany would look up to Hitler, and here shows how Hitler would die for his country, how he would do what so ever to protect his country. He is telling us in this poster that he himself would fight for Germany, he would be able to lead his country, and the people in it, and keep them from harm. Having an eagle hover against the light of heaven over Hitler in this poster connects back to Christ when a dove descended upon Him when He was being baptised by John the Baptist. This would give us a clue that Yes! Hitler was an idealized God to the Germans’, knowing that he has done a lot for them. Overcoming the great depression, helping the citizens of Germany get employed and many other offers. People would praise in Adolf Hitler’s name. They would die for Hitler. As you can see at the back of Hitler are his followers, much likely to be the Nazi’s and German people holding the German flag and hailing Hitler. Thousands, let’s say billions had gathered to support Hitler, and trying to persuade us that Hitler is a trustworthy man, and how he can help German citizens overcome anything when they are in deep crisis. We all know that in Hitler’s time, everyone idolized him, but for what reason? Hitler was a powerful and spellbinding speaker who attracted a wide following of Germans who were desperate for change in Germany. This poster tells us more of how Hitler won over, changed Germany and became successful in many things. To conclude this Visual essay, Hitler was successful in his days, knowing by the looks of this poster. He did have everybody fooled by his beauty and the way he structures himself, to make people think he is on their side, but in reality he’s just another beast getting revenge for his mother country, Germany. â€Å"Heil Hitler† they say, and have German flags flowing for him†¦ â€Å"Heil Hitler! †

History Of Social Services In England Social Work Essay

History Of Social Services In England Social Work Essay In 1992 the Department of Health (DH) and the then, Social Services Inspectorate, in England, published the findings of a survey of two social services Departments in relation to abuse. This publication found there to be a lack of assessments in large numbers of elder abuse cases and little evidence of inter-agency cooperation. The report recommended guidelines to assist social services in their work with older people (DH/SSI 1992). During the 1990s concerns had been raised throughout the UK regarding the abuse of vulnerable adults. The social services inspectorate published Confronting elder abuse (SSI 1992) and following this, practice guidelines No longer afraid (SSI 1993). No longer afraid provided practice guidelines for responding to, what was acknowledged at that time, as elder abuse. It was aimed at professionals in England, Wales and Northern Ireland and emphasised clear expectations that policies should be multi-agency and also include ownership and operational responsibilities (Bennett et al 1997). This guidance was issued under section 7 of the Local Authority Social Services Act 1970 and gives local authority Social Service departments a co-ordinating role in the development and implementation of local vulnerable adult policies and procedures. In 2000, the department of Health published the guidance No Secrets. The purpose of No Secrets was aimed primarily at local authority social services departments, but also gave the local authority the lead in co-ordinating other agencies i.e. police, NHS, housing providers (DOH 2000). The guidance does not have the full force of statute, but should be complied with unless local circumstances indicate exceptional reasons which justify a variation (No Secrets, 2000) The aim of No Secrets was to provide a coherent framework for all responsible organisations to devise a clear policy for the protection of vulnerable adults at risk of abuse and to provide appropriate responses to concerns, anxieties and complaints of abuse /neglect (DOH 2000). Scotland Historical In December 2001, the Scottish Executive published Vulnerable Adults: Consultation Paper (2001 consultation) (Scottish Executive, 2001). This sought views on the extension of the vulnerable adults provisions to groups other than persons with mental disorder and the possible introduction of provisions to exclude persons living with a vulnerable adult, where the adults health is at risk. A joint inquiry was conducted by the Social Work Services Inspectorate and the Mental Welfare Commission for Scotland. Both of these agencies were linked with the central government of Scotland who had responsibility for the oversight of social work services and care and treatment for persons with mental health problems. In the report by the Scottish Executive (2004), a case of a woman who was admitted to a general hospital with multiple injuries from physical and sexual assault and who had a learning disability became the focus for change for Scotland in terms of adults who have been abused. The police investigation identified a catalogue of abuse and assaults ranging back weeks and possibly longer. In June 2003 the Minister for Education and Young People, Peter Peacock MSP, asked the Social Work Services Inspectorate (SWSI) to carry out an inspection of the social work services provided to people with learning disabilities by Scottish Borders Council. At the same time, the Mental Welfare Commission for Scotland (MWC) also undertook an inquiry into the involvement of health services, though worked closely with SWSI during its inquiry. The two bodies produced separate reports, but also published a joint statement (MWC and SWSI, 2004), which summarised their findings and stated their recommendations. The findings included: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ a failure to investigate appropriately very serious allegations of abuse à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ a lack of information-sharing and co-ordination within and between key agencies (social work, health, education, housing, police) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ a lack of risk assessment and failure to consider allegations of sexual abuse a lack of understanding of the legislative framework for intervention and its capacity to provide protection à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ a failure to consider statutory intervention at appropriate stages The Adult Support and Protection (Scotland) Act 2007 (ASPA) is a result of the events that were known as the Scottish Borders Enquiry. Following the various police investigations, it was identified that there were historical links between the client and the offenders who were later prosecuted in terms of statements held by social services department detailing the offenders behaviour towards the woman and that this information was held on file. The Scottish Executive (2004) described the case as extremely disturbing but even more shocking to many that so many concerns about this woman had been made known and not acted on. As a consequence, 42 recommendations from the inquiry were made and there was a specific recommendation which was taken to the Scottish Executive and involved the provision of comprehensive adult protection legislation as a matter of urgency as there had been concerns raised from political groups and high profile enquiries to provide statute for the protection of adults at risk of abuse in Scotland (Mackay 2008). The Scottish framework links with three pieces of legislation. In 2000, the Adults with Incapacity (Scotland) Act [AWISA 2000] was passed and focused on protecting those without capacity with financial and welfare interventions for those unable to make a decisions. Second, the Mental Health (Care and Treatment) (Scotland) Act (2003) [MHSA (2003)] modernised the way in which care and treatment could be delivered both in hospital and the community and improved patients rights. Finally, the Adult Support and Protection (Scotland) Act (2007) [ASPSA (2007)] widened the range of community care service user groups who could be subject to assessment, and mainly short-term intervention, if they were deemed to be adults at risk of harm. Mackay (2008) argues that the Scottish arrangements both mirror and differ from those of England and Wales. She maps out the intervention powers for adults at risk of harm into a type of hierarchical structure known as a pyramid of intervention which aims to reflect the framework of the various pieces of Scottish legislation and goes onto say that the principle underlying all of the legislation is minimum intervention to achieve the desired outcome. Critique of definitions. In England, the No Secrets (2000) guidance defines a vulnerable adult as a person aged 18 or over and who is or may be in need of community care services by reason of mental or other disability, age or illness; and who is or may be unable to take care of him or herself, or unable to protect him or herself against significant harm or exploitation (DOH 2000 Section 2.3) The groups of adults targeted by No Secrets were those who is or may be eligible for community care services. And within that group, those who were unable to protect themselves from significant harm were referred to as vulnerable adults. Whilst the phrase vulnerable adults names the high prevalence of abuse experienced by the group, there is a recognition that this definition is contentious. ADSS (2005). The definition of a vulnerable adult referred to in the 1997 consultation paper Who Decides issued by the Lord Chancellors Department is a person: who is, or may be in need of Community Care Services by reason of mental or other disability, age or illness: and who Is, or may be unable to take care of him or herself, or unable to protect him or herself against significant harm or exploitation (Law Commission Report 231, 1995) There are however broader definitions of vulnerability which are used in different guidance and in the more recent Crime and Disorder Act (1998) it refers to vulnerable sections of the community and embraces ethnic minority communities and people rendered vulnerable by social exclusion and poverty rather than service led definitions. There is concern, however, that the current England framework is more restricted than it should be, and that the problem is one of definition. The House of Commons Health Committee, says that No secrets should not be confined to people requiring community care services, and that it should also apply to old people living in their own homes without professional support and anyone who can take care of themselves (House of Commons Health Committee, 2007). Even within the ADASS National Framework (2005) it has been argued that vulnerability seems to locate the cause of abuse with the victim, rather than placing responsibility with the acts or omissions of others (ADASS, 2005) The Law Commission speaks favourably of the Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act 2006, which, it says, understands vulnerability purely through the situation an adult is placed [in] (Law Commission, 2008). It is now becoming questionable whether the term vulnerable be replaced with the term at risk. If we were to look at the current legislation in England surrounding the investigations of abuse to adults, there are none, however there are underpinning pieces of legislation which whilst not in its entirety focus specifically on the adult abuse remit, but can be drawn upon to protect those most vulnerable. There are many duties underpinning investigations of adult abuse, but no specific legislation. The NHS and Community Care Act 1990, section 47 assessments can be implemented in order to consider an adults need for services and can therefore consider any risk factors present at the time of the assessment. From this, assessment and commissioned services can support people who have been abused or can prevent abuse from occurring. The National Assistance Act (1948) deals with the welfare of people with disabilities and states that the: local authority shall make arrangements for promoting the welfare of person whosuffers from a mental disorderwho are substantially and permanently handicapped by illness, injury or congenital deformity or other disabilities and gives power to provide services arising out of an investigation out of the NHS Community care Act 1990. (Mantell 2009). The Fair Access to Care Services 2003 (FACS) recognises that community care services will be a vital aspect of adult protection work (Spencer- Lane, 2010). Interestingly the eligibility criteria that superseded Fair Access to Care from April 2010 (Prioritising Need in the context of Putting People First: A whole systems approach to eligibility for Social Care), continues to place adults who are experiencing, or at risk of experiencing abuse or neglect, in Critical and substantial needs criteria banding, as FACS did. Another definition of a vulnerable adult is cited within The Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act (2006), (SVG Act 2006), and defines a vulnerable adult as: A person is a vulnerable adult if he has attained the age of 18 and: (a)he is in residential accommodation, (b)he is in sheltered housing, (c)he receives domiciliary care, (d)he receives any form of health care, (e)he is detained in lawful custody, (f)he is by virtue of an order of a court under supervision by a person exercising functions for the purposes of Part 1 of the Criminal Justice and Court Services Act 2000 (c. 43), (g)he receives a welfare service of a prescribed description, (h)he receives any service or participates in any activity provided specifically for persons who fall within subsection (9), (i)payments are made to him (or to another on his behalf) in pursuance of arrangements under section 57 of the Health and Social Care Act 2001 (c. 15), or (j)he requires assistance in the conduct of his own affairs. This particular act appears to take an alternative approach to the term vulnerability. It refers to places where a person is placed and is situational. (Law Commission, 2008). Following the consultation of No Secrets, one of the key findings of the consultation was the role that the National Health Service played in relation to Safeguarding Vulnerable adults and their systems. The Department of Health produced a document titled Clinical Governance and Adult Safeguarding- An Integrated Process (DOH 2010). The aim of the guidance is to encourage organisations to develop processes and systems which focused on complaints, healthcare incidents and how these aspects fall within the remit of Safeguarding processes and to empower reporting of such as it identified that clinical governance systems did not formally recognise the need to work in collaboration with Local Authorities when concerns arise during healthcare delivery. The definition of who is vulnerable in this NHS guidance, refers to the Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act (2006) and states that any adult receiving any form of healthcare is vulnerable and that there is no formal definition of vulnerability within health care but those receiving healthcare may be at greater risk from harm than others (DOH 2010). In the Care Standards Act 2000 it describes a Vulnerable adult as: (a) an adult to whom accommodation and nursing or personal care are provided in a care home; (b) an adult to whom personal care is provided in their own home under arrangements made by a domiciliary care agency; or (c) an adult to whom prescribed services are provided by an independent hospital, independent clinic, independent medical agency or National Health Service body. Similar to the Safeguarding Vulnerable Groups Act, the Care Standards Act 2000 classifies the term vulnerable adult as situational and circumstantial rather than specific and relevant to a persons individual circumstance. Spencer-Lane (2010) says that these definitions of vulnerability in England have been the subject of increasing criticism. He states that the location of the cause of the abuse rests with the victim rather than the acts of others; that vulnerability is an inherent characteristic of the person and that no recognition is given that it might be contextual, by setting or place that makes the person vulnerable. Interestingly Spencer -Lane (2010) prefers the concept of adults at risk. He goes on to suggest a new definition that adults at risk are based on two approaches as the Law Commission feel that the term vulnerable adults should be replaced by adults at risk to reflect these two concerns: To reflect the persons social care needs rather than the receipt of services or a particular diagnosis What the person is at risk from whether or not the term significant harm should be used but would include ill treatment or the impairment of health or development or unlawful conduct which would include financial abuse Spencer-Lane (2010) also argues that with the two approaches above, concerns remain regarding the term significant harm as he feels the threshold for this type of risk is too high and whether the term in its entirety at risk of harm be used whilst encompassing the following examples: ill treatment; impairment of health or development; unlawful conduct. Unlike in Scotland, there are no specific statutory provisions for adult protection; the legal framework is provided through a combination of the common law, local authority guidance and general statute law (Spencer-Lane 2010). Whereby in England the term vulnerable adult is used, in Scotland the term in the Adult Support and Protection (Scotland) Act 2007 uses the term adults at risk. This term was derived by the Scottish Executive following their 2005 consultation were respondents criticised the word vulnerable as they believed it focussed on a person disability rather than their abilities, hence the Scottish executive adopted the term at risk (Payne, 2006). Martin (2007) questions the definition of vulnerability and highlights how the vulnerability focus in England leaves the deficit with the adult, as opposed to their environment. She uses the parallel argument to that idea of disabling environments, rather than the disabled person, within the social model of disability. She goes on to comment that processes within society can create vulnerability. People, referred to as vulnerable adults, may well be in need of community care services to enjoy independence, but what makes people vulnerable is that way in which they are treated by society and those who support them. It could be argues that vulnerability and defining a person as vulnerable could be construed as being oppressive. This act states that an adult at risk is unable to safeguard their own well-being, property, rights or other interests; at risk of harm and more vulnerable because they have a disability, mental disorder, illness or physical or mental infirmity. It also details that the act applies to those over 16 years of age, where in England the term vulnerable adult is defined for those over the age of 18 and for the requirement under the statute is that all of the three elements are met for a person to be deemed at risk. ADASS too supports the use of risk as the basis of adult protection, although its definition differs from the one used in Scotland. It states that an adult at risk is one who is or may be eligible for community care services and whose independence and wellbeing are at risk due to abuse or neglect (ADASS, 2005) The ASPSA (2007) act The Scottish Code of Practice states that no category of harm is excluded simply because it is not explicitly listed. In general terms, behaviours that constitute harm to others can be physical (including neglect), emotional, financial, sexual or a combination of these. Also, what constitutes serious harm will be different for different persons. (Scottish Government, 2008a p13). In defining what constitutes significant harm, No Secrets (2000) uses the definition of significant harm in who decides? No Secrets defines significant harm as:- harm should be taken to include not only ill treatment (including sexual abuse and forms of ill treatment which are not physical), but also the impairment of, or an unavoidable deterioration in, physical or mental health; and the impairment of physical, intellectual, emotional, social or behavioural developments (No Secrets, 2000. The ASPA (2007) act also goes onto detail that any intervention in an individuals affairs should provide benefit to the individual, and should be the least restrictive option of those that are available thus providing a safety net on the principles of the act (ASPA, 2007). The Adult Support and Protection (Scotland) Act 2007 says: harm includes all harmful conduct and, in particular, includes: conduct which causes physical harm; conduct which causes psychological harm (e.g. by causing fear, alarm or distress) unlawful conduct which appropriates or adversely affects property, rights or interests (e.g. theft, fraud, embezzlement or extortion) conduct which causes self-harm N.B conduct includes neglect and other failures to act, which includes actions which are not planned or deliberate, but have harmful consequences Interestingly the Mental Capacity Act 2005 (section 44) introduced a new criminal offence of ill treatment and wilful neglect of a person who lacks capacity to make a relevant decision. It does not matter whether the behaviour toward the person was likely to cause or actually caused harm or damage to the victims health. Although the Mental Capacity Act mainly relates to adults 16 and over, Section 44 can apply to all age groups including children (Code of Practice Mental Capacity Act 2005). The Association of Directors of Social Services (ADSS) published a National Framework of Standards to attempt to reduce variation across the country (ADSS 2005). In this document the ADSS 2005 updated this definition above to :- every adult who is or may be eligible for community care services, facing a risk to their independence (ADSS 2005 para 1.14). England and Scotland differences with policy/legislation Definition of vulnerability Three part definition to definition of at risk of harm Harm might be caused by another person or the person may be causing the harm themselves no category of harm is excluded simply because it is not explicitly listed. In general terms, behaviours that constitute harm to others can be physical (including neglect), emotional, financial, sexual, or a combination of these. Also, what constitutes serious harm will be different for different persons. Code of Practice, Scottish Government (2008) Defining vulnerable: adult safeguarding in England and Wales Greater level of contestation in defining VA in adults than children. Doucuments in wales and England are very similar. In safe hands document is greater but both are issued under the provision of section 7. Whilst they are guidance, there is a statutory footing behind them. No Secrets (DH2000) defines vulnerable in a particular way: Is a person who is or may be in need of community care services by reason of mental or other disability, age or illness; and who is or may be unable to take care of him or herself, or unable to protect him or herself against significant harm or exploitation. No Secrets paragraph 2.3 Lord Chancellors Department, Who Decides (1995) The ASP Act introduces new adult protection duties and powers, including: Councils duty to inquire and investigate Duty to co-operate Duty to consider support services such as independent advocacy Other duties and powers visits, interviews, examinations Protection Orders: assessment, removal, banning and temporary banning Warrants for Entry, Powers of Arrest and Offences Duty to establish Adult Protection Committees across Scotland Harm includes all harmful conduct and, in particular, includes: a) conduct which causes physical harm; b) conduct which causes psychological harm (for example: by causing fear, alarm or distress); c) unlawful conduct which appropriates or adversely affects property, rights or interests (for example: theft, fraud; embezzlement or extortion); and d) conduct which causes self-harm. An adult is at risk of harm if: another persons conduct is causing (or is likely to cause) the adult to be harmed, or the adult is engaging (or is likely to engage) in conduct which causes (or is likely to cause) self-harm N.B conduct includes neglect and other failures to act (Section 53)

Critical Analysis of Darkness at Noon by Harold Krents Essay -- Darkne

Critical Analysis of Darkness at Noon by Harold Krents In "Darkness at Noon", Harold Krents vividly describes some of the everyday prejudices disabled citizens must face. Presented in an often humorous fashion, the author opens the reader’s eyes to the cruel ironies of society’s preconceived and inaccurate judgments, and their long reaching effects on his life. Krents begins his essay by pointing out to the reader that he cannot see himself, and thus, often has to depend upon the viewpoints of others. He states: "To date it has not been narcissistic." The average reader may not be aware that the word "narcissistic" means, "Excessively in love with oneself." It is helpful for the reader to keep this first observation in mind as he continues through the article, and hears Krent’s descriptions of society’s viewpoints. Krents points out three particular judgments that are often passed on him by the public. "There are those who assume that since I can’t see, I obviously cannot hear" then, "†¦others know that of course I can hear, but believe that I can’t talk" and finally "The toughest misconception of all is the view that because I can’t see, I can’t work." It is surely an unfortunate irony, that the disabled citizen must not only deal with his own burdens, but also, the imaginary ones placed upon him by society. Krents supports his statements using appealing illustrative stories with effective imagery. Krent’s chooses to use words which are effective, and relay a definite scene to the reader. Some examples are: "†¦enunciating each word very carefully", "..if the dread word is spoken, the ticket agent’s retina will immediately detach†¦"and "†¦my saint-like disposition deserted me†¦I finally blurted out†¦" He creates i... ...is not even present. Krent’s other recollections are also effective. They all work together to demonstrate the unfounded fears and misconceptions of some members of society. Krent’s mistake is attributing the opinions of a misled few to those of the entire nation. Although the reader is moved by Krents many stories and examples, the lack of objectivity in the essay leaves the reader with doubts. Krent’s theme - that if handicapped persons were viewed fairly their disability would be not be apparent- is one that the reader is aware of and wants to believe in. Yet, Krent’s own pessimistic tones overshadow the greater good. The reader is left with the unpalatable feeling that this essay may be nothing more than a very unconfident and dissatisfied man, attempting to pin his disappointments and failures on society, so that he may feel better about himself.

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in E-Commerce Essay -- Trade Ec

General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in E-Commerce The US is seeking to extend the duty-free status of international online transactions to protect the development of global electronic commerce, the Clinton administration said yesterday. Susan Esserman, deputy US trade representative, said the US wanted the World Trade Organization to agree "at the earliest possible date" to extend the current moratorium on customs duties for electronic trade. In testimony to the Senate foreign relations sub-committee on Europe, Ms Esserman said duty-free cyberspace was particularly valuable to US software companies that were seeking to distribute their products electronically. The US is also looking for WTO members to affirm that electronic commerce is subject to existing rules and agreements, and should not face "unnecessary regulatory barriers to trade". However Ms Esserman said "more time and work are necessary" before electronic goods could be subject to final classification under WTO rules. Electronic commerce in the US is forecast to grow to $1,300bn by 2003, while in India it is expected to grow by $15bn within two years. Richard Wolffe, Washington Protectionism, it seems, is always with us and it is useful to examine the intermittent attempts made to establish rules for its containment. This book is one such examination, on the conception, birth, and early years of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); it is restricted to the years 1940--53. It is the work of an historian but one at the political, rather than economic, end of the spectrum. The heavy emphasis throughout is on the American role within an essentially Anglo-American tussle. The argument is that although trade was a relatively small proportion of US output it was used for political and diplomatic purposes. The general thrust is that the US was keen on a new liberal order and determined to break the British empire's preferential trading arrangements. However, when we read that the central argument is that, 'by liberalizing trade while protecting domestic economies -- a bargain consistent with US trade law, practice, and history ...', we might reasonably expect to be in for a roc ky ride. Politics is important and possibly even central in the process of trade protection, but will always be found to depend on economic forces. The politics... ...sn’t have enough of its own trees to meet its demand for paper. The cheapest way for the Japanese to meet their paper needs has been to import raw logs from America, a trade which ended in the 1980s because there simply was not enough timber to supply Japan and satisfy domestic U.S. needs. Free trade, of course, demands that traders sell to the customer who offers the highest price; they cannot be required to fill the needs of one market at the expense of another. Should Americans sell to Japan at higher prices even if it means domestic shortages, or is it appropriate to say, "These are our trees, hands off"? The arguments that apply to protecting timber can also be easily applied to other natural resources, such as coal or copper. On the other hand, free trade agreements work to the benefit of the United States in terms of resources where we cannot fill our own needs, such as oil or gold. Although each of these arenas has its own specific issues, in each case the essential question boils down to: "Is this important enough to our country that we should protect ourselves against the inroads of foreign traders, thereby cutting ourselves off from the benefits of free trade?" General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in E-Commerce Essay -- Trade Ec General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade in E-Commerce The US is seeking to extend the duty-free status of international online transactions to protect the development of global electronic commerce, the Clinton administration said yesterday. Susan Esserman, deputy US trade representative, said the US wanted the World Trade Organization to agree "at the earliest possible date" to extend the current moratorium on customs duties for electronic trade. In testimony to the Senate foreign relations sub-committee on Europe, Ms Esserman said duty-free cyberspace was particularly valuable to US software companies that were seeking to distribute their products electronically. The US is also looking for WTO members to affirm that electronic commerce is subject to existing rules and agreements, and should not face "unnecessary regulatory barriers to trade". However Ms Esserman said "more time and work are necessary" before electronic goods could be subject to final classification under WTO rules. Electronic commerce in the US is forecast to grow to $1,300bn by 2003, while in India it is expected to grow by $15bn within two years. Richard Wolffe, Washington Protectionism, it seems, is always with us and it is useful to examine the intermittent attempts made to establish rules for its containment. This book is one such examination, on the conception, birth, and early years of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT); it is restricted to the years 1940--53. It is the work of an historian but one at the political, rather than economic, end of the spectrum. The heavy emphasis throughout is on the American role within an essentially Anglo-American tussle. The argument is that although trade was a relatively small proportion of US output it was used for political and diplomatic purposes. The general thrust is that the US was keen on a new liberal order and determined to break the British empire's preferential trading arrangements. However, when we read that the central argument is that, 'by liberalizing trade while protecting domestic economies -- a bargain consistent with US trade law, practice, and history ...', we might reasonably expect to be in for a roc ky ride. Politics is important and possibly even central in the process of trade protection, but will always be found to depend on economic forces. The politics... ...sn’t have enough of its own trees to meet its demand for paper. The cheapest way for the Japanese to meet their paper needs has been to import raw logs from America, a trade which ended in the 1980s because there simply was not enough timber to supply Japan and satisfy domestic U.S. needs. Free trade, of course, demands that traders sell to the customer who offers the highest price; they cannot be required to fill the needs of one market at the expense of another. Should Americans sell to Japan at higher prices even if it means domestic shortages, or is it appropriate to say, "These are our trees, hands off"? The arguments that apply to protecting timber can also be easily applied to other natural resources, such as coal or copper. On the other hand, free trade agreements work to the benefit of the United States in terms of resources where we cannot fill our own needs, such as oil or gold. Although each of these arenas has its own specific issues, in each case the essential question boils down to: "Is this important enough to our country that we should protect ourselves against the inroads of foreign traders, thereby cutting ourselves off from the benefits of free trade?"

Describe Holmes and Rahe’s (1967) Social Readjustment Rating Scale (Srrs) and Describe to What Extent It Is a Valid Taxonomy of the Causes of Stress

Describe Holmes and Rahe’s (1967) Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS) and describe to what extent it is a valid taxonomy of the causes of stress. The top five stressful events, which can happen in an individual’s life, are categorised as ‘death of a spouse’, ‘divorce’, ‘martial separation’, ‘jail term’, and ‘death of a close family member’. Also, events such as ‘vacation’ and ‘change in eating habits’ are considered to be minor life changes on the scale. Each event is attributed to an arbitrary value or ‘LCU’ (Life Change Units) ranging from one to a hundred. From this, an individual is given a cumulative score based upon all of the stressful events which have happened to them over the previous year. People with a sum total of between two hundred and three hundred life change units are supposed to develop major health problems. People scoring over one hundred units are likely to suffer a moderate period of ill-health (Holmes and Rahe, 1967). It can be said that there is a considerable bias in some of the items on the list of life events, favouring adults over younger individuals. Needless to say, teenagers suffer from stress, but it is unconvincing to argue that they need to cope with occurrences such as ‘death of a spouse’, ‘divorce’ or ‘marital separation’ and it is likely that they will not find ‘vacation’ stressful but the complete opposite. It also should be noted that stressful events including ‘exams pressures’ and ‘concerns about weight or appearance’ are not included in the forty-three life events, and these can be considerably stressful for younger people. This reiterates the fact that some items need to be added to the model, for this scale to be more generalisable in characterising the causes of stress. References